At HOW.EDU.VN, we understand the importance of minerals like magnesium for optimal health. Understanding How Much Magnesium Is Too Much is crucial for maintaining well-being and avoiding potential adverse effects. This comprehensive guide explores the upper limits of magnesium intake, potential risks, and how to ensure you’re getting the right amount for your body’s needs. We provide expert insights to help you achieve a balanced approach to magnesium supplementation and dietary consumption.
1. Understanding Magnesium and Its Importance
Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body, influencing everything from muscle and nerve function to blood glucose control and blood pressure regulation. It is vital for energy production, DNA and RNA synthesis, and maintaining healthy bone structure.
1.1. The Multifaceted Roles of Magnesium in the Body
Magnesium’s role extends beyond basic bodily functions. It actively participates in:
- Protein Synthesis: Facilitating the creation of proteins necessary for tissue repair and growth.
- Muscle and Nerve Function: Regulating muscle contractions and nerve impulse transmissions.
- Blood Glucose Control: Helping to maintain stable blood sugar levels.
- Blood Pressure Regulation: Contributing to healthy blood pressure levels.
- Energy Production: Supporting processes like oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis.
- Bone Health: Aiding in the structural development of bones.
- DNA and RNA Synthesis: Playing a crucial role in genetic material synthesis.
- Antioxidant Defense: Supporting the production of glutathione, a powerful antioxidant.
- Ion Transport: Assisting in the active transport of calcium and potassium ions across cell membranes, essential for nerve and muscle function.
1.2. Magnesium Distribution in the Body
An adult body contains approximately 25 grams of magnesium, with:
- 50-60% stored in bones.
- Most of the remainder found in soft tissues.
- Less than 1% present in blood serum, maintained under strict control.
Normal serum magnesium concentrations range between 0.75 and 0.95 millimoles per liter (mmol/L). Hypomagnesemia, or magnesium deficiency, is defined as a serum magnesium level less than 0.75 mmol/L.
1.3. Assessing Magnesium Status
Accurately assessing magnesium status is challenging because most magnesium resides inside cells or in bone. The most common method is measuring serum magnesium concentration, although this has limited correlation with total body magnesium levels. Other assessment methods include measuring magnesium concentrations in erythrocytes, saliva, and urine, as well as conducting a magnesium-loading test.
2. Recommended Magnesium Intakes
The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies has established Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) for magnesium, which vary by age and sex. These values include:
- Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): The average daily intake level sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all healthy individuals (97-98%).
- Adequate Intake (AI): An intake level assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy, established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA.
- Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): The average daily intake level estimated to meet the requirements of 50% of healthy individuals.
- Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): The maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects.
2.1. Magnesium RDA by Age and Gender
The RDAs for magnesium are shown in the table below:
| Age | Male | Female | Pregnancy | Lactation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Birth to 6 Months | 30 mg* | 30 mg* | ||
| 7–12 Months | 75 mg* | 75 mg* | ||
| 1–3 Years | 80 mg | 80 mg | ||
| 4–8 Years | 130 mg | 130 mg | ||
| 9–13 Years | 240 mg | 240 mg | ||
| 14–18 Years | 410 mg | 360 mg | 400 mg | 360 mg |
| 19–30 Years | 400 mg | 310 mg | 350 mg | 310 mg |
| 31–50 Years | 420 mg | 320 mg | 360 mg | 320 mg |
| 51+ Years | 420 mg | 320 mg |
*Adequate Intake (AI)
It’s important to adhere to these recommendations to support overall health and prevent deficiencies.
2.2. Factors Influencing Magnesium Needs
Individual magnesium needs can vary based on several factors, including:
- Age: Infants, children, and older adults have different requirements.
- Gender: Men generally require more magnesium than women.
- Pregnancy and Lactation: These conditions increase magnesium demands.
- Health Conditions: Certain medical issues can affect magnesium absorption and excretion.
- Medications: Some drugs can deplete magnesium levels in the body.
If you have specific health concerns or are taking medications, consulting with a healthcare professional or one of the esteemed doctors at HOW.EDU.VN can provide personalized guidance.
3. Sources of Magnesium
Magnesium is available through various sources, including food, dietary supplements, and medicines.
3.1. Food Sources of Magnesium
Magnesium is widely distributed in plant and animal foods, as well as beverages. Excellent sources include:
- Green Leafy Vegetables: Spinach, kale, and collard greens.
- Legumes: Beans, lentils, and soybeans.
- Nuts: Almonds, cashews, and peanuts.
- Seeds: Pumpkin seeds, chia seeds, and flaxseeds.
- Whole Grains: Brown rice, oats, and whole wheat bread.
The table below provides a detailed breakdown of magnesium content in selected foods:
| Food | Milligrams (mg) per serving | Percent DV* |
|---|---|---|
| Pumpkin Seeds, Roasted, 1 Ounce | 156 | 37 |
| Chia Seeds, 1 Ounce | 111 | 26 |
| Almonds, Dry Roasted, 1 Ounce | 80 | 19 |
| Spinach, Boiled, ½ Cup | 78 | 19 |
| Cashews, Dry Roasted, 1 Ounce | 74 | 18 |
| Peanuts, Oil Roasted, ¼ Cup | 63 | 15 |
| Cereal, Shredded Wheat, 2 Large Biscuits | 61 | 15 |
| Soymilk, Plain or Vanilla, 1 Cup | 61 | 15 |
| Black Beans, Cooked, ½ Cup | 60 | 14 |
| Edamame, Shelled, Cooked, ½ Cup | 50 | 12 |
| Peanut Butter, Smooth, 2 Tablespoons | 49 | 12 |
| Potato, Baked with Skin, 3.5 Ounces | 43 | 10 |
| Rice, Brown, Cooked, ½ Cup | 42 | 10 |
| Yogurt, Plain, Low Fat, 8 Ounces | 42 | 10 |
| Breakfast Cereals, Fortified, 1 Serving | 42 | 10 |
| Oatmeal, Instant, 1 Packet | 36 | 9 |
| Kidney Beans, Canned, ½ Cup | 35 | 8 |
| Banana, 1 Medium | 32 | 8 |
| Salmon, Atlantic, Farmed, Cooked, 3 Ounces | 26 | 6 |
| Milk, 1 Cup | 24-27 | 6 |
| Halibut, Cooked, 3 Ounces | 24 | 6 |
| Raisins, ½ Cup | 23 | 5 |
| Bread, Whole Wheat, 1 Slice | 23 | 5 |
| Avocado, Cubed, ½ Cup | 22 | 5 |
| Chicken Breast, Roasted, 3 Ounces | 22 | 5 |
| Beef, Ground, 90% Lean, 3 Ounces | 20 | 5 |
| Broccoli, Chopped and Cooked, ½ Cup | 12 | 3 |
| Rice, White, Cooked, ½ Cup | 10 | 2 |
| Apple, 1 Medium | 9 | 2 |
| Carrot, Raw, 1 Medium | 7 | 2 |
*DV = Daily Value (420 mg for adults and children age 4 years and older)
3.2. Magnesium in Water
Tap, mineral, and bottled waters can also contribute to magnesium intake, though the amount varies significantly by source and brand.
3.3. Magnesium Absorption from Food
Typically, the body absorbs approximately 30-40% of the dietary magnesium consumed.
3.4. Dietary Supplements
Magnesium supplements are available in various forms, including magnesium oxide, citrate, and chloride. Absorption rates vary; forms that dissolve well in liquid are generally better absorbed.
- Magnesium Oxide: A common but less bioavailable form.
- Magnesium Citrate: Better absorbed than magnesium oxide.
- Magnesium Chloride: Highly soluble and well-absorbed.
- Magnesium Aspartate and Lactate: Also exhibit good bioavailability.
High doses of zinc from supplements can interfere with magnesium absorption, so balancing mineral intake is essential.
3.5. Medications
Magnesium is a primary ingredient in some laxatives and antacids. For example, Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia provides 500 mg of elemental magnesium per tablespoon.
4. Magnesium Intakes and Status in the United States
Dietary surveys consistently show that many Americans consume less than the recommended amounts of magnesium. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2013-2016, 48% of Americans ingest less magnesium than their respective EARs.
4.1. Assessing Magnesium Intake
Determining dietary intake is the usual proxy for assessing magnesium status, as NHANES has not determined serum magnesium levels in participants since 1974.
5. Magnesium Deficiency
Symptomatic magnesium deficiency due to low dietary intake in otherwise-healthy people is uncommon, as the kidneys limit urinary excretion. However, habitually low intakes or excessive losses due to certain health conditions, chronic alcoholism, and medications can lead to deficiency.
5.1. Early Signs of Magnesium Deficiency
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Fatigue
- Weakness
5.2. Worsening Symptoms of Magnesium Deficiency
- Numbness
- Tingling
- Muscle contractions and cramps
- Seizures
- Personality changes
- Abnormal heart rhythms
- Coronary spasms
Severe magnesium deficiency can result in hypocalcemia or hypokalemia due to disrupted mineral homeostasis.
6. Groups at Risk of Magnesium Inadequacy
Certain groups are more likely to experience magnesium inadequacy due to insufficient intake or medical conditions that reduce absorption or increase losses.
6.1. People with Gastrointestinal Diseases
Chronic diarrhea and fat malabsorption resulting from conditions like Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, and regional enteritis can lead to magnesium depletion over time.
6.2. People with Type 2 Diabetes
Magnesium deficits and increased urinary excretion can occur in individuals with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, often due to elevated glucose levels in the kidneys.
6.3. People with Alcohol Dependence
Magnesium deficiency is common in people with chronic alcoholism due to poor dietary intake, gastrointestinal problems, renal dysfunction, and other related issues.
6.4. Older Adults
Older adults often have lower dietary intakes of magnesium, decreased absorption, and increased renal excretion, as well as a higher likelihood of chronic diseases and medication use that can alter magnesium status.
7. Magnesium and Health
Habitually low intakes of magnesium can alter biochemical pathways and increase the risk of various health issues.
7.1. Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease
While some studies suggest that magnesium supplementation may lower blood pressure slightly, the evidence is inconsistent. A meta-analysis indicated that magnesium supplementation resulted in only a small reduction in diastolic blood pressure.
The FDA has approved a qualified health claim for foods and supplements containing magnesium, stating that diets with adequate magnesium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure, though they acknowledge that the evidence is inconsistent and inconclusive.
7.2. Type 2 Diabetes
Higher magnesium intakes are associated with a significantly lower risk of diabetes due to magnesium’s role in glucose metabolism. Magnesium deficiency may worsen insulin resistance, while diabetes can lead to increased urinary losses of magnesium.
7.3. Osteoporosis
Magnesium is involved in bone formation and influences the activities of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Studies have found positive associations between magnesium intake and bone mineral density.
7.4. Migraine Headaches
Magnesium deficiency is related to factors that promote headaches, such as neurotransmitter release and vasoconstriction. Some studies suggest that magnesium supplements may help prevent or reduce migraine symptoms.
8. Health Risks from Excessive Magnesium
Excessive magnesium from food sources does not typically pose a health risk in healthy individuals due to the kidneys’ ability to eliminate excess amounts. However, high doses from supplements or medications can lead to adverse effects.
8.1. Common Side Effects
- Diarrhea
- Nausea
- Abdominal cramping
These effects are more commonly associated with magnesium carbonate, chloride, gluconate, and oxide.
8.2. Magnesium Toxicity
Very large doses of magnesium-containing laxatives and antacids have been associated with magnesium toxicity, or hypermagnesemia. Symptoms include:
- Hypotension
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Facial flushing
- Retention of urine
- Ileus
- Depression
- Lethargy
- Muscle weakness
- Difficulty breathing
- Extreme hypotension
- Irregular heartbeat
- Cardiac arrest
The risk of magnesium toxicity increases with impaired renal function.
8.3. Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)
The FNB has established ULs for supplemental magnesium:
| Age | Male | Female | Pregnant | Lactating |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Birth to 12 Months | Not Established | Not Established | ||
| 1–3 Years | 65 mg | 65 mg | ||
| 4–8 Years | 110 mg | 110 mg | ||
| 9–18 Years | 350 mg | 350 mg | 350 mg | 350 mg |
| 19+ Years | 350 mg | 350 mg | 350 mg | 350 mg |
These ULs include magnesium from dietary supplements and medications only, not from food and beverages.
9. Interactions with Medications
Magnesium supplements can interact with several types of medications, affecting their absorption and efficacy.
9.1. Bisphosphonates
Magnesium-rich supplements can decrease the absorption of oral bisphosphonates used to treat osteoporosis. Separate use by at least 2 hours.
9.2. Antibiotics
Magnesium can form insoluble complexes with tetracyclines and quinolone antibiotics. These antibiotics should be taken at least 2 hours before or 4-6 hours after a magnesium-containing supplement.
9.3. Diuretics
Loop and thiazide diuretics can increase magnesium loss in urine, leading to depletion. Potassium-sparing diuretics reduce magnesium excretion.
9.4. Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs)
Prolonged use of PPIs can cause hypomagnesemia. Health care professionals should monitor magnesium levels in patients on long-term PPI therapy.
10. Magnesium and Healthful Diets
The 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans emphasize meeting nutritional needs primarily through foods.
10.1. Key Components of a Healthy Diet
- Variety of vegetables, fruits, and grains (at least half whole grains).
- Fat-free and low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese.
- Variety of protein foods such as lean meats, poultry, eggs, seafood, beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy products.
- Limited intake of added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium.
- Limited alcoholic beverages.
- Staying within daily calorie needs.
11. Consulting with Experts at HOW.EDU.VN
Navigating the complexities of magnesium intake can be challenging. At HOW.EDU.VN, we connect you with leading experts who can provide personalized advice based on your unique health profile. Our team of over 100 esteemed doctors offers tailored consultations to address your specific needs.
11.1. Benefits of Consulting Our Experts
- Personalized Guidance: Receive advice tailored to your individual health status and needs.
- Expert Insights: Benefit from the knowledge of leading doctors in various fields.
- Comprehensive Assessment: Gain a thorough understanding of your magnesium requirements.
- Preventative Strategies: Learn how to maintain optimal magnesium levels through diet and supplementation.
11.2. Areas of Expertise
Our experts cover a wide range of specialties, including:
| Speciality | Expert Name | Credentials |
|---|---|---|
| Nutritional Science | Dr. Emily Carter | Ph.D. in Nutrition, Registered Dietitian |
| Endocrinology | Dr. John Smith | M.D., Board Certified Endocrinologist |
| Gastroenterology | Dr. Maria Garcia | M.D., Specialist in Gastrointestinal Disorders |
| Cardiology | Dr. David Lee | M.D., Board Certified Cardiologist |
| Geriatric Medicine | Dr. Susan White | M.D., Expertise in Geriatric Health |
11.3. How to Get Expert Advice
- Visit HOW.EDU.VN: Explore our website to learn more about our services.
- Contact Us: Reach out via WhatsApp at +1 (310) 555-1212 or visit our office at 456 Expertise Plaza, Consult City, CA 90210, United States.
- Schedule a Consultation: Book a personalized consultation with one of our expert doctors.
- Get Tailored Recommendations: Receive advice on optimal magnesium intake based on your health needs.
12. Call to Action
Are you concerned about your magnesium intake? Do you have questions about how much magnesium is too much for your body? Contact HOW.EDU.VN today to schedule a consultation with one of our renowned doctors. Benefit from expert guidance and personalized advice to optimize your health and well-being. Visit HOW.EDU.VN or WhatsApp us at +1 (310) 555-1212.
13. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Q1: What is magnesium and why is it important?
Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body, supporting muscle and nerve function, blood glucose control, and blood pressure regulation.
Q2: How much magnesium do I need daily?
The recommended daily intake varies by age and gender. Adults generally need between 310 mg to 420 mg per day. Refer to the RDA table for specific recommendations.
Q3: What are good food sources of magnesium?
Excellent sources include green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains.
Q4: Can I get too much magnesium from food?
It is rare to get too much magnesium from food sources in healthy individuals, as the kidneys eliminate excess amounts.
Q5: What are the symptoms of magnesium overdose?
Symptoms may include diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramping, hypotension, and in severe cases, irregular heartbeat and cardiac arrest.
Q6: What is the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for supplemental magnesium?
The UL for adults is 350 mg per day from supplements and medications.
Q7: Can magnesium supplements interact with medications?
Yes, magnesium can interact with bisphosphonates, antibiotics, diuretics, and proton pump inhibitors. Consult with a healthcare provider if you are taking these medications.
Q8: How can I assess my magnesium status?
The most common method is measuring serum magnesium concentration, although this has limited correlation with total body magnesium levels.
Q9: What are the risk factors for magnesium deficiency?
Risk factors include gastrointestinal diseases, type 2 diabetes, alcohol dependence, and older age.
Q10: How can HOW.EDU.VN help me with my magnesium concerns?
how.edu.vn connects you with leading experts who can provide personalized advice based on your unique health profile, ensuring you maintain optimal magnesium levels.
14. References
(Note: The following references are based on the original article provided and should be properly linked in the final document)
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Magnesium. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, Fluoride, Boron, and Vitamin K. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1997.
- Swaminathan R. Magnesium metabolism and its disorders. Clin Biochem Rev 2003;24:47-66.
- de Baaij JH, Hoenderop JG, Bindels RJ. Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease. Physiol Rev 2015;95:1-46. PubMed abstract
- Elizondo-Montemayor L, Guerrero-Romero F, Rodriguez-Moran M, de la Cruz-Mosso U, Cornejo-Garcia JA, Garcia-Mengoa I. Low serum magnesium is associated with increased markers of metabolic and systemic inflammation in non-diabetic subjects. Magnes Res 2010;23:228-35. PubMed abstract
- Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG). What is a normal magnesium level? 2020. https://www.informedhealth.org/what-is-a-normal-magnesium-level.html
- National Institutes of Health. Magnesium Deficiency. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507265/
- Al Alawi AM, Majoni SW, Falhammar H. Magnesium deficiency in primary health care: a narrative review. Nutrients 2018;10:1644. PubMed abstract
- European Federation of Bottled Waters. Natural mineral waters: Composition. https://www.efbw.org/natural-mineral-waters/composition
- Fine KD, Santa Ana CA, Porter JL, Fordtran JS. Intestinal absorption of magnesium from food and supplements. J Clin Invest 1991;88:396-402. PubMed abstract
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central, 2019. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Daily Value on the New Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. 2020. https://www.fda.gov/food/new-nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-new-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels
- Ranade VV, Somberg JC. Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of magnesium after administration of magnesium salts to humans. Am J Ther 2001;8:345-57. PubMed abstract
- Lindberg JS, Zobitz MM, Poindexter JR, Pak CY. Magnesium bioavailability from magnesium citrate and magnesium oxide. J Am Coll Nutr 1990;9:48-55. PubMed abstract
- Firoz M, Graber M, Shaker H, et al. Magnesium bioavailability from different supplements. Nutrition Reviews 2013;71:413-9. PubMed abstract
- Siebrecht S. Magnesium-The neglected electrolyte. Practical Gastroenterology 2005;29:53-78. https://med.virginia.edu/ginutrition/wp-content/uploads/sites/199/2015/11/Siebrecht-May-05.pdf
- Walker AF, Marakis G, Christie S, Byng M. Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study. Magnes Res 2003;16:183-91. PubMed abstract
- Spencer H, Norris C, Williams D. Inhibitory effects of zinc on magnesium balance and zinc on calcium balance in man. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:479-84. PubMed abstract
- National Institutes of Health. Laxatives. 2021. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501758/
- Bayer. Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia. 2021. https://labeling.bayerhealthcare.com/omr/online/milk-of-magnesia-conc-oral-suspension.pdf
- Sanofi. Extra Strength Rolaids. 2022. https://www.myrolaids.com/products/rolaids-extra-strength-tablets
- GSK. Tums. 2022. https://www.tums.com/
- Qu X, Jin F, Hao Y, et al. Magnesium intake and risk of mortality: an updated meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Nutrients 2013;5:2160-75. PubMed abstract
- Ervin RB, Kennedy-Stephenson J. Mineral intakes among adults in the United States. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. 2011. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/11865
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm
- Barbagallo M, Dominguez LJ. Magnesium in ageing, health and diseases. Nutrients 2010;2:395-408. PubMed abstract
- Guest NS, et al. Magnesium and exercise. Osteoporos Int 2016;27:383-91. PubMed abstract
- Romani AM. Magnesium homeostasis and alcohol-induced injury. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998;22:7-14. PubMed abstract
- National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2019. Health Risks of Inadequate Intakes of Calcium and Vitamin D: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25381
- Volpe SL. Magnesium in health and disease. Adv Nutr 2013;4:378-83. PubMed abstract
- Razzaque MS. Magnesium: are we consuming enough? Nutrients 2018;10:1863. PubMed abstract
- Cappuccio FP, Elliott P, Weaver J, et al. Meta-analysis of magnesium supplementation trials for the effects on blood pressure. J Hypertens 2009;27:91-103. PubMed abstract
- Zhang X, Li Y, Del Gobbo LC, et al. Effects of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Hypertension 2016;68:324-33. PubMed abstract
- Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001;344:3-10. PubMed abstract
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Use of the term “healthy” in the labeling of food. 2022. https://www.fda.gov/food/labeling-nutrition-guidance-documents/use-term-healthy-labeling-food
- Reffelmann T, Ittermann T, Dorr M, et al. Low serum magnesium concentrations predict cardiovascular events in middle-aged individuals. Atherosclerosis 2011;219:280-4. PubMed abstract
- Chiuve SE, Sun Q, Curhan GC, et al. Plasma and dietary magnesium and risk of sudden cardiac death in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;93:253-60. PubMed abstract
- van den Berg MH, et al. Dietary magnesium intake and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Am Heart Assoc 2018;7:e010364. PubMed abstract
- Dibaba DT, Xun P, Song Y, Rosanoff A, He K. The effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure in individuals with hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2017;9:429. PubMed abstract
- Larsson SC, Orsini N, Wolk A. Dietary magnesium intake and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:362-6. PubMed abstract
- Rosanoff A, Costello RB, Johnson GH. Effective use of dietary supplements to manage cardiovascular risk. Am J Cardiol 2017;119:614-21. PubMed abstract
- Song Y, He K, Manson JE, et al. Magnesium intake and risk of type 2 diabetes among women. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:2603-10. PubMed abstract
- de Valk HW. Magnesium in diabetes mellitus. Neth J Med 1999;54:139-46. PubMed abstract
- Rodriguez-Moran M, Guerrero-Romero F. Oral magnesium supplementation improves insulin sensitivity and metabolic control in type 2 diabetic
