For those seeking to understand the foundational text of Christianity, a common starting point is to ask: how many books are in the Bible? The answer, while seemingly simple, reveals a rich history of interpretation and tradition. Generally, when people refer to the Bible, they are talking about a collection of 66 books, divided into two main sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. This is the canon recognized by most Protestants. Specifically, this canon includes 39 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament.
However, the story doesn’t end there. You might encounter Bibles with more than 66 books. For example, Roman Catholic Bibles include additional books, often referred to as deuterocanonical books, while Eastern Orthodox Bibles may include an even broader collection. These extra texts are collectively known as the Apocrypha. Furthermore, there exists a body of ancient Jewish writings called the Pseudepigrapha, which are not included in any mainstream Bible canon.
This raises important questions: Why are there different versions of the Bible? What criteria were used to decide which books belong and which do not? Who made these decisions, and when? Understanding the answers to these questions requires a journey through centuries of history, exploring the development of the biblical canon – the officially recognized list of books considered to be Scripture. It’s crucial to understand that the canon wasn’t formed overnight or by a single decree. It was a gradual process of recognition by the early church, discerning which texts held inherent divine authority.
Understanding the Old Testament Canon
By the time of Jesus Christ and his apostles, the shape of what Christians call the Old Testament was largely established. This Old Testament corresponds to the Hebrew Bible, also known as the Tanakh, which was the Scripture of Jesus’ day. The Hebrew Bible is structured into 24 books or scrolls. The division into 39 books in the Christian Old Testament arises from the way some of these scrolls are divided into multiple books (for example, the twelve minor prophets were originally one scroll).
The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is organized into three parts:
- Torah (Law): The first five books – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These were considered foundational Scripture from the earliest times.
- Nevi’im (Prophets): This section includes books from Joshua to Kings, along with the major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) and the Book of the Twelve (minor prophets).
- Ketuvim (Writings): A diverse collection of poetic, wisdom, and historical books, including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles.
The acronym TaNaK is formed from the first letters of these three sections. Evidence suggests that this Hebrew canon was largely solidified by the 2nd century BC, although discussions about the Writings continued into the first century AD. It’s noteworthy how Jesus himself referred to the Scriptures as “the Law and the Prophets” (e.g., Matthew 5:17) or “the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (Luke 24:44), reflecting this tripartite structure.
The Question of the Apocrypha in the Old Testament
Significant historical evidence points to the Jewish community’s acceptance of these 24 scrolls as Scripture, distinct from other religious writings. Conversely, there is limited evidence suggesting that major Jewish groups included the Apocryphal books in their canon. The Apocrypha are texts that emerged primarily between the 3rd century BC and potentially as late as the 2nd century AD – after the period of recognized Old Testament prophecy concluded with Malachi (5th century BC).
Within the early church, opinions varied regarding the inclusion of the Apocrypha. Jerome, a prominent 4th-century theologian, famously rejected the Apocrypha as Scripture. However, acknowledging their use within the church, he included some Apocryphal books in his Latin Vulgate translation, but marked them to distinguish them from the canonical books. Jerome’s contemporary, Augustine, held a different view, advocating for the acceptance of the Apocrypha within the canon and even criticizing Jerome’s reliance on the Hebrew text over the Greek Septuagint. The Orthodox Church generally follows Augustine’s perspective, while Western churches have historically leaned towards Jerome’s.
During the Reformation in the 16th century, Martin Luther placed the Apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments, acknowledging them as valuable for reading but not equal to Scripture. John Calvin later rejected them entirely, a view that became prevalent in Protestantism. The Roman Catholic Church, at the Council of Trent in 1546, officially declared the deuterocanonical books to be fully canonical, settling the matter for Catholicism. This historical divergence explains why Protestant Bibles typically contain 66 books, while Catholic Bibles include additional books in the Old Testament.
The New Testament Canon: 27 Universally Accepted Books
In some ways, the New Testament canon is simpler than the Old Testament. There are no “Apocryphal” books in the New Testament that are included in some canons but not others. All Christian denominations universally recognize the same 27 books of the New Testament. However, the process of recognizing these books was just as complex and fascinating as the Old Testament canon formation. A common misconception, popularized by works like The Da Vinci Code, is that the New Testament canon was decided by Emperor Constantine and the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. This is historically inaccurate.
From the earliest days of Christianity, certain writings by the apostles and their close associates were regarded as Scripture. Passages like 1 Timothy 5:18 and 2 Peter 3:16 suggest that New Testament writers were already recognizing some writings as divinely authoritative. Early Church Fathers consistently cited the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) and Paul’s letters as Scripture. Writers like Ignatius, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus in the 2nd century clearly demonstrate the early church’s acceptance of these texts as having divine authority.
Responding to Heresy and Solidifying the Canon
Around 140 AD, the heretic Marcion challenged the developing canon by rejecting the Old Testament and accepting only a modified version of Luke’s Gospel and some of Paul’s letters. Marcion’s actions may have spurred the church to more formally define the New Testament canon, leading to a clearer affirmation of books like Acts, Revelation, and the non-Pauline epistles. Acts, being linked to Luke, was readily accepted, as were 1 Peter and 1 John, quoted by early figures like Polycarp and Irenaeus. These books were treated with the same authority as the Old Testament Scriptures.
Initially, there was some hesitation in certain regions regarding seven books: Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. This was often due to the slower distribution of texts across the growing Christian world. However, the frequent citations of these books by Church Fathers indicate a widespread, though not immediate, acceptance of their scriptural status.
The proliferation of heretical texts in the late 2nd century further emphasized the need for canonical clarity. Church leaders recognized the importance of distinguishing authentic apostolic teaching from spurious writings. This concern led to the creation of lists of recognized Scripture. The Muratorian Canon, dating from around 170 to the 4th century, is one of the earliest known lists, including most New Testament books but omitting Hebrews, James, Peter’s letters, and 3 John. It even included the Apocalypse of Peter, a book that ultimately did not gain widespread acceptance. Other writings, like The Shepherd of Hermas, were considered valuable by some early Christians but were ultimately excluded from the canon.
The First Complete Listing and the Role of the Holy Spirit
The first complete listing of the 27 New Testament books as we know them today appeared in Athanasius’s Easter Letter in 367 AD. Importantly, Athanasius didn’t present this list as a new decision by the church. Instead, he described these 27 books as “God-inspired Scripture” that had been “handed down and confirmed as divine” by “original eyewitnesses and ministers of the word.” He also acknowledged the value of books like The Shepherd of Hermas and the Old Testament Apocrypha for reading, but clarified that they did not possess divine authority.
The crucial question then becomes: how did the early church discern “God-inspired Scripture”? A key factor was apostolic authorship or close association with an apostle (like Mark with Peter, and Luke with Paul). While the authorship of Hebrews remains debated, its theological content aligned with apostolic teaching. Ultimately, the early church recognized God’s inherent authority within these texts. While modern approaches often emphasize rational criteria and evidence, the formation of the canon highlights a deeper reality: the Holy Spirit who inspired these writings also guided the church in recognizing and embracing their divine authority. The 66 books of the Bible stand as the Word of God not because of a decree from a council, but because the Holy Spirit led the church to cherish them as God’s own voice speaking through human words.
Further Reading
Articles
- Kruger, Michael J. ‘The Biblical Canon’. The Gospel Coalition.
- Meade, John D. ‘Did Nicaea Really Create the Bible?’ Text and Canon Institute (2021).
- Meade, John D. ‘Why Are Protestant and Catholic Bibles Different?’ Text and Canon Institute (2021).
Videos
- Licona, Mike. ‘How the Canon of the Bible Was Formed’ (2017).
- The Gospel Coalition. ‘Why You Can Rely On the Canon’ – interview with Michael Kruger (2014)
Books
- Hill, C.E. Who Chose the Gospels? Probing the Great Gospel Conspiracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
- Kruger, Michael J. Canon Revisited: Establishing the Origins and Authority of the New Testament Books. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012
- Lanier, Greg. A Christian’s Pocket Guide to How We Got the Bible : Old and New Testament Canon and Text. Tain: Christian Focus, 2023.
- Meade, John D., and Peter J. Gurry. Scribes and Scripture: The Amazing Story of How We Got the Bible. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2022.
